Friday, 24 July 2009
Thursday, 23 July 2009
Radio before 1920
Dot-dash radio telegraphy (primarily Marconi) was used experimentally
as early as 1897. By 1910, in general use for ship-to-shore communication.
This was not "broadcasting" but point-to-point communication. What
made broadcasting possible was the invention of the audion tube by
DeForest in 1906-the tube permitting modulation of sound. Voices of
Caruso and Emmy Dustin were broadcast experimentally in 1910; from 1910
to 1917, there was considerable amateur experimentation with broadcasting
of various forms of program materials-chiefly talks, vocal, music,and
phonograph records. With U.S. entry into the war in 1917, all radio
was taken over by the U.S. Navy to prevent possible use by spies, and
the development of new equipment was protected from patent infringment
suits by government order. Broadcasting was being regulated under
the Wireless Act of 1910.
This period marked the start of "regular" broadcasting; after the
government removed restrictions late in 1919. The Radio
Corporation of America was formed in 1919 as a patent pool to control
the use of the new equipment which had been invented during WWI, but
which was not able to be used unless all the conflicting patent owners
would permit. The make-up of RCA consisted of those companies that had
the key patents or would shortly buy them for wireless telegraphy.
They got the bonus of wireless telephony as well.
Formal "broadcasting" is usually considered as beginning on
November 2, 1920, when Westinghouse's KDKA-Pittsburgh broadcast the
Harding-Cox election returns and inaugurated a daily schedule of
programs. Throughout period, broadcasting was on an experimental,
non-commercial, amateur basis.
1923 - 1926
This was a transitional period; it saw the beginnings of broadcasting
on a commercial basis; it marked the development of new types of
equipment; it saw development of basic types of programs. Chiefly, it
was a period in which some persons at least saw in broadcasting a
possible source of revenues-from sale of time, rather than the sale of
receiving sets.
1926 - 1930
Commercial radio became solidly established- particularly development
of networks, and the presentation of network programs by national advertisers.
1930s
This was the beginning of the great depression in the United States - a
depression which had its effect on programming and on the various forms
of advertising, but relatively little effect on broadcast revenues.
The 1930-35 period was also the time of the greatest "idea" development
in the history of American radio programming-with respect to network
programs in particular.
Broadcasting in 1935 to 1941 saw radio revenues soaring to new
Page2
heights; and while not too many new program forms introduced,
older forms were polished and improved.
1940s
This period included World War II. The nation had shifted, in December of
1941, from a threat-of-war situation into actual involvement. The war
imposed as many hardships on broadcasters as it did upon
those engaged in other occupations; electronic concerns were shifted
to war production, with the result that broadcasting equipment, tubes,
etc. was in short supply; costs advanced; employees were drafted into
military service.
On the other hand, both network and station revenues were strikingly
greater than in the prewar period; in 1944-45, no less than 70% above
the level of revenues in 1940-41. Some of this increase was the result
of inflation, but even so,1941 to 1945 was the big money-making time
for American radio.
1945-1952 was a highly important era in the history of
American radio and television. It saw an enormous increase in the
total number of radio stations, the erection of 108 TV stations-and
the beginnings, at least, of a shift in importance from radio to
television, especially on the network level. The transistor was
demonstrated in 1947 by Bell Labs.
1950s Page 3
Broadcasting from 1952 through the 1960's.
Earlier trends continued, but during this decade television became the
dominant mass medium as the freeze on licenses was lifted and a
70-channel UHF band was added. The networks reached from coast-
to-coast and in 1953 the FCC approved the industry indorsed compatible
NTSC color television system (RCA-NBC), reversing their 1950 decision
which had authorized a non-compatible field-sequential system (CBS).
Radio became less secure, but grew in the number of smaller stations
licensed.
Cable TV.
The first systems of CATV originally were designed to bring nearby
signals via a highly placed antenna directly to the TV set wherever a
reception problem existed. Although early systems of cable radio had
existed in 1923, in the 1950's growth of Cable TV began. Because
signals were picked up out of the air from nearby transmitters
broadcaster saw little problems as cable seemed to just extend their
audiences. In 1959 there were about 3,000 systems operating. In
1965, CATV spread into larger cities and broadcasters began to worry as
these systems imported distant television stations from other markets
which tended to fragment their once local captive audiences. The FCC had at
first determined that it would not (did not want to) regulate CATV but as the
broadcasters began to scream competition the FCC took over regulation
of that industry in 1965. Through its rules it effectively slowed Cable
development until the early 1970's. 4
as early as 1897. By 1910, in general use for ship-to-shore communication.
This was not "broadcasting" but point-to-point communication. What
made broadcasting possible was the invention of the audion tube by
DeForest in 1906-the tube permitting modulation of sound. Voices of
Caruso and Emmy Dustin were broadcast experimentally in 1910; from 1910
to 1917, there was considerable amateur experimentation with broadcasting
of various forms of program materials-chiefly talks, vocal, music,and
phonograph records. With U.S. entry into the war in 1917, all radio
was taken over by the U.S. Navy to prevent possible use by spies, and
the development of new equipment was protected from patent infringment
suits by government order. Broadcasting was being regulated under
the Wireless Act of 1910.
This period marked the start of "regular" broadcasting; after the
government removed restrictions late in 1919. The Radio
Corporation of America was formed in 1919 as a patent pool to control
the use of the new equipment which had been invented during WWI, but
which was not able to be used unless all the conflicting patent owners
would permit. The make-up of RCA consisted of those companies that had
the key patents or would shortly buy them for wireless telegraphy.
They got the bonus of wireless telephony as well.
Formal "broadcasting" is usually considered as beginning on
November 2, 1920, when Westinghouse's KDKA-Pittsburgh broadcast the
Harding-Cox election returns and inaugurated a daily schedule of
programs. Throughout period, broadcasting was on an experimental,
non-commercial, amateur basis.
1923 - 1926
This was a transitional period; it saw the beginnings of broadcasting
on a commercial basis; it marked the development of new types of
equipment; it saw development of basic types of programs. Chiefly, it
was a period in which some persons at least saw in broadcasting a
possible source of revenues-from sale of time, rather than the sale of
receiving sets.
1926 - 1930
Commercial radio became solidly established- particularly development
of networks, and the presentation of network programs by national advertisers.
1930s
This was the beginning of the great depression in the United States - a
depression which had its effect on programming and on the various forms
of advertising, but relatively little effect on broadcast revenues.
The 1930-35 period was also the time of the greatest "idea" development
in the history of American radio programming-with respect to network
programs in particular.
Broadcasting in 1935 to 1941 saw radio revenues soaring to new
Page2
heights; and while not too many new program forms introduced,
older forms were polished and improved.
1940s
This period included World War II. The nation had shifted, in December of
1941, from a threat-of-war situation into actual involvement. The war
imposed as many hardships on broadcasters as it did upon
those engaged in other occupations; electronic concerns were shifted
to war production, with the result that broadcasting equipment, tubes,
etc. was in short supply; costs advanced; employees were drafted into
military service.
On the other hand, both network and station revenues were strikingly
greater than in the prewar period; in 1944-45, no less than 70% above
the level of revenues in 1940-41. Some of this increase was the result
of inflation, but even so,1941 to 1945 was the big money-making time
for American radio.
1945-1952 was a highly important era in the history of
American radio and television. It saw an enormous increase in the
total number of radio stations, the erection of 108 TV stations-and
the beginnings, at least, of a shift in importance from radio to
television, especially on the network level. The transistor was
demonstrated in 1947 by Bell Labs.
1950s Page 3
Broadcasting from 1952 through the 1960's.
Earlier trends continued, but during this decade television became the
dominant mass medium as the freeze on licenses was lifted and a
70-channel UHF band was added. The networks reached from coast-
to-coast and in 1953 the FCC approved the industry indorsed compatible
NTSC color television system (RCA-NBC), reversing their 1950 decision
which had authorized a non-compatible field-sequential system (CBS).
Radio became less secure, but grew in the number of smaller stations
licensed.
Cable TV.
The first systems of CATV originally were designed to bring nearby
signals via a highly placed antenna directly to the TV set wherever a
reception problem existed. Although early systems of cable radio had
existed in 1923, in the 1950's growth of Cable TV began. Because
signals were picked up out of the air from nearby transmitters
broadcaster saw little problems as cable seemed to just extend their
audiences. In 1959 there were about 3,000 systems operating. In
1965, CATV spread into larger cities and broadcasters began to worry as
these systems imported distant television stations from other markets
which tended to fragment their once local captive audiences. The FCC had at
first determined that it would not (did not want to) regulate CATV but as the
broadcasters began to scream competition the FCC took over regulation
of that industry in 1965. Through its rules it effectively slowed Cable
development until the early 1970's. 4
सेक्सीलाई प्रतिशतमा हिसाब नगरौं : करिस्मा मानन्धर
नेपाली सिने जगतकी चर्चित नायीका करिश्मा मानन्धर केहीबर्षदेखि अमेरिका वस्दै आएकी छन् । नायीकाबाट निर्मात्री बनेकी उनी नराम्रोसंग घाटा खाएपछि अमेरिका हानीएकी हुन् । हाल नेपालमा रहेकी करिश्मासंग राजन घिमिरेले गरेको अनौपचारिक कुराकानीको संक्षेप:
करिश्मा अब नेपालमा नै बस्ने कि अमेरिकामा ?
अब दुवैतिर हुन्छु । तर, पहिले जस्तो लामो समयसम्म चाहिं अमेरिकामा बस्दिन ।
कसरी आयो नि यस्तो सोच ?
नेपाली सिनेमा, कलाकार र परिवारलाई बिर्सन सकिन ।
अमेरिकाबाट पैसा कमाउन पुगेर त होइन नि ?
आम्मै ! कस्तो कुरा गरेको ? पैसाले कसलाई पो पुगेको छ र भन्या । पैसाले पुगेर होइन, विशुद्ध रुपमा पारिवारिक कारण ।
आउनासाथ फिल्म पनि खेली हाल्नु भयो नि ?
अमेरिकाबाट नेपाल र्फकनासाथ फिल्म खेल्ने सोच त थिएन । तर, सिनेकर्मीहरुको प्रस्तावलाई मैले नकार्न सकिन ।
तपाईको बारेमा दर्शकले थाहा नपाएका तीन कुरा ?
म खाना पकाउन रुचाउँछु, सुत्न मन पराउँछु र आफ्नो कपडा आफै धुन्छु ।
मानौं, तपाईलाई एक दिन जे गर्न पनि छुट दिइयो भने के गर्नु हुन्थ्यो ?
धेरै कुरा गर्नु छ । त्यसैले यसको जवाफ त सोचेर नै भन्छु ।
एकजनालाई लिएर चन्द्रमामा जान पाउनु भयो भने कसलाई लानुहुन्थ्यो ?
यो त झगडा गराउने प्रश्न भयो । मसँग एउटी छोरी र एउटा श्रीमान् छन् । दुई मध्ये एकलाई लिएर जाँदा अर्को रिसाउने भयो नि । त्यसैले कि म मात्र जान्छु कि त दुवैलाई लिएर जान पाउनु पर्छ ।
तपाईले अहिलेसम्म कतै कहिं नभनेको सत्य ?
त्यो सस्पेन्स नै राखौं । कतै पनि नभनेको कुरा तपाईलाई किन भनौं ?
चलचित्रको बारेमा तपाईले सुनेको वाहियात कुरा ?
सिनेमा खेल्ने आशमा नायिकाहरुले निर्माता वा निर्देशकको ओछ्यान तताउनु पर्छ रे ! वाहियात हल्ला ।
भगवानसँग केही सोध्ने अवसर पाउनु भयो भने …….. ?
भनिन्छ ! हिन्दुहरुको धेरै भगवान छन् । यत्तिका भगवान भएको देशमा किन धेरै अपराध, हत्या अनि हिंसा ? भनेर सोध्थेँ ।
तपाई आफूलाई कति प्रतिशत सेक्सी मान्नु हुन्छ ?
सेक्स र सेक्सीलाई प्रतिशतमा हिसाब नगरौं ।
लोग्ने मान्छेको मन नपर्ने पाँच कुरा ?
सर-सफाईमा ध्यान दिंदैनन् । केटीको अगाडि धेरै खर्च गरेर खोक्रो सान देखाउन खोज्छन् । जिम्मेवारी बहन गर्न नसक्ने । देखावटी गर्छन् । केटीभन्दा बढी शंकालु हुन्छन् ।
एक्लै हुनुको तीन फाइदा ?
शान्ति हुन्छ । आˆनो निर्णयमा अरुको हस्तक्षेप हुँदैन र घर फोहोर हुँदैन ।
करिश्मा अब नेपालमा नै बस्ने कि अमेरिकामा ?
अब दुवैतिर हुन्छु । तर, पहिले जस्तो लामो समयसम्म चाहिं अमेरिकामा बस्दिन ।
कसरी आयो नि यस्तो सोच ?
नेपाली सिनेमा, कलाकार र परिवारलाई बिर्सन सकिन ।
अमेरिकाबाट पैसा कमाउन पुगेर त होइन नि ?
आम्मै ! कस्तो कुरा गरेको ? पैसाले कसलाई पो पुगेको छ र भन्या । पैसाले पुगेर होइन, विशुद्ध रुपमा पारिवारिक कारण ।
आउनासाथ फिल्म पनि खेली हाल्नु भयो नि ?
अमेरिकाबाट नेपाल र्फकनासाथ फिल्म खेल्ने सोच त थिएन । तर, सिनेकर्मीहरुको प्रस्तावलाई मैले नकार्न सकिन ।
तपाईको बारेमा दर्शकले थाहा नपाएका तीन कुरा ?
म खाना पकाउन रुचाउँछु, सुत्न मन पराउँछु र आफ्नो कपडा आफै धुन्छु ।
मानौं, तपाईलाई एक दिन जे गर्न पनि छुट दिइयो भने के गर्नु हुन्थ्यो ?
धेरै कुरा गर्नु छ । त्यसैले यसको जवाफ त सोचेर नै भन्छु ।
एकजनालाई लिएर चन्द्रमामा जान पाउनु भयो भने कसलाई लानुहुन्थ्यो ?
यो त झगडा गराउने प्रश्न भयो । मसँग एउटी छोरी र एउटा श्रीमान् छन् । दुई मध्ये एकलाई लिएर जाँदा अर्को रिसाउने भयो नि । त्यसैले कि म मात्र जान्छु कि त दुवैलाई लिएर जान पाउनु पर्छ ।
तपाईले अहिलेसम्म कतै कहिं नभनेको सत्य ?
त्यो सस्पेन्स नै राखौं । कतै पनि नभनेको कुरा तपाईलाई किन भनौं ?
चलचित्रको बारेमा तपाईले सुनेको वाहियात कुरा ?
सिनेमा खेल्ने आशमा नायिकाहरुले निर्माता वा निर्देशकको ओछ्यान तताउनु पर्छ रे ! वाहियात हल्ला ।
भगवानसँग केही सोध्ने अवसर पाउनु भयो भने …….. ?
भनिन्छ ! हिन्दुहरुको धेरै भगवान छन् । यत्तिका भगवान भएको देशमा किन धेरै अपराध, हत्या अनि हिंसा ? भनेर सोध्थेँ ।
तपाई आफूलाई कति प्रतिशत सेक्सी मान्नु हुन्छ ?
सेक्स र सेक्सीलाई प्रतिशतमा हिसाब नगरौं ।
लोग्ने मान्छेको मन नपर्ने पाँच कुरा ?
सर-सफाईमा ध्यान दिंदैनन् । केटीको अगाडि धेरै खर्च गरेर खोक्रो सान देखाउन खोज्छन् । जिम्मेवारी बहन गर्न नसक्ने । देखावटी गर्छन् । केटीभन्दा बढी शंकालु हुन्छन् ।
एक्लै हुनुको तीन फाइदा ?
शान्ति हुन्छ । आˆनो निर्णयमा अरुको हस्तक्षेप हुँदैन र घर फोहोर हुँदैन ।
Cited from: Onlinekhabar.com
Public transprt shut in Bagmati
Demanding the compensation and police action against those who involved in the vandalism, the transportation entrepreneurs have called for an indefinite period public transportation strike in the Bagmati region from Friday morning. Due to the Transportation halt, public transportation has been affected from early morning. Some of the SATA tempos and taxis are running though. On Tuesday, A Micro Bus was vandalized by the students protesting to an incident in front of Tri-Chandra Campus at Ghantaghar. Earlier, on Thursday, the transport entrepreneurs had organsed a protest rally against the government and Singha Durbar Gherao programme
Introduction
Hi,
My name is Pramina Chapagain. I live in Maitidevi. My pet name is Paru. That's all for today.
My name is Pramina Chapagain. I live in Maitidevi. My pet name is Paru. That's all for today.
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